MIDDLE EAST
The Middle East is a geographical and cultural region located primarily in western Asia, but also in parts of northern Africa and southeastern Europe. Traditionally included within the Middle East are Arabia, Asia Minor, Egypt, Iran, the Levant, Mesopotamia. The region includes 17 UN-recognized countries and one British Overseas Territory. Historically, the Middle East is often referred to as the “Cradle of Civilization”, as it home different major world civilization ranging from Akkadian, Babylonian, Mesopotamia, Assyrian, and among others. The region is also the origin point for many of the religions and belief systems which help define modern civilizations today. The region was home to the ancient Kingdom of Israel and thus fostered the Jewish religion. Jesus is believed to have been born in Nazareth, which is located in what is now the northern region of Israel, and indeed early Christianity traces its origins back to the Middle East. The region is also the birthplace of Islam, as the Prophet Muhammad was born in Mecca (now the capital of Saudi Arabia) in around AD 570. Owing to this, the region came under control of Arab dynasties.
The Ottoman Empire was dismantled during the course of World War I, resulting in a vacuum of power in the Middle East in which the British and French occupied further stretches of territory up until the end of World War II, where after a series of conflicts both European powers began to retreat from the region. The 20th century saw the formation of several new nations within the Middle East, such as Saudi Arabia, Iran (which had been previously known as Persia), Jordan, Lebanon, Syria, and Israel. The region also saw a series of major conflicts during this century, such as the Arab-Israeli War, the Iran-Iraq War, and the Gulf War. The Middle East’s recent history during the 21st century has also been marred with violence.
Demographically, the population of the middle east rests at around 690 million people. The most populous countries in the Middle East include Pakistan (~193 million), Egypt (~90.6 million), Iran (~79 million), and Turkey (~78.7 million), while the least populated countries are Cyprus (~1.1 million), Bahrain (~1.4 million), Qatar (~2.4 million), and Armenia (~3 million). Over 90% of people from these countries are predominantly Muslim. On the other hand, Orthodox Christianity is also practiced among the prominent Christian denomination in the region, with several major groups including the Armenian, Coptic, and Greek, Cyprus, Georgia. The Christians holds at least 10% of the region’s population.
SUEZ CANAL
The Suez Canal is a sea-level waterway running north-south across the Isthmus of Suez in Egypt to connect the Mediterranean and the Red seas. The canal separates the African continent from Asia, and it provides the shortest maritime route between Europe and the lands lying around the Indian and western Pacific oceans. It is one of the world’s most heavily used shipping lanes. Historians have concluded that the Egyptian Pharaoh Senausert III was the first to think of connecting the Red Sea and the Mediterranean. However, the Suez Canal’s actual history starts with the First Concession; and the other concessions that followed all the way to the groundbreaking then the completion of the digging on August 18th, 1869, and the inauguration ceremony on November 17th, 1869.
One of the major groundbreaking step towards the establishment of the Canal was the Concessional Grant promulgated by the then French diplomat, Ferdinand de Lesseps issued on November 30th, 1854. Its first article stipulated that de Lesseps shall establish the company and supervise all its work, and the second article stipulated that the company’s president shall be appointed by the Egyptian government. The third article specified that the duration of the concession shall be ninety-nine years starting the inauguration of the Canal, and the fifth article stated that the Egyptian government shall receive 15% of the Company’s annual net profit. This concession also stipulated that the transit fee shall be mutually agreed upon by the Khedive and the Company, and that all countries shall be treated equally and without discrimination. In addition to that, it stated that after the duration of the concession has ended, the Egyptian government shall take over the waterway and all the affiliated buildings.
The second concession was the establishment of the Universal Company of the Maritime Canal of Suez on December 5th, 1858, with a capital of 200 million Francs (8 million Egyptian Pounds) divided between 400,000 shares at a price of 500 Francs each. Egypt’s portion was initially 92136 shares, and the shares reserved for Britain, the United States, Austria and Russia totaled at 85506, but were not bought as they refused to take part in the public offering. As a result, Egypt took a loan for 28 million Francs (1120000 Egyptian Pounds) at a very high interest to buy those shares after the insistence of de Lesseps and out of a genuine desire that this project succeeds. At that point, the total number of shares owned by Egypt reached 177642 with a value of approximately 89 million Francs (3560000 Egyptian Pounds) which was roughly half the Company’s capital. The digging of the Canal started on April 15th, 1859 despite objections from Britain and the Ottoman Empire.
THE CONSTANTINOPLE CONVENTION OF OCTOBER 29TH. 1888
It was an agreement made between France, Austria, Hungary, Spain, Britain, Italy, the Netherlands, Russia and Turkey to draw a final system that ensures freedom of navigation through the Suez Canal. In relation to the matter of Egypt's honoring the Constantinople Convention, it has sent a letter on July 17th, 1957 to the International Court of Justice, informing it that Egypt has recognized the Court’s compulsory jurisdiction in accordance with the provisions of Article 36 of the statute of the Court for all disputes relating to transit through the Suez Canal.
THE SUEZ WAR
The Suez Crisis, also known as the Second Arab–Israeli War, the Tripartite Aggression in the Arab world and the Sinai War in Israel, was a British–French–Israeli invasion of Egypt in October 29th, 1956 – November 7th, 1956. The war started when Israeli armed forces pushed into Egypt toward the Suez Canal, a valuable waterway that controlled two-thirds of the oil used by Europe. In July of that year, Egyptian president Gamal Abdel Nasser nationalized the canal. The Israelis were joined by French and British forces, which damaged their relationships with the United States and nearly brought the Soviet Union into the conflict.
Two years earlier, in the wake of World War II, the Egyptian military had begun pressuring the British to end their colonial-era military presence (which had been granted in the 1936 Anglo-Egyptian Treaty) in the canal zone. Nasser’s armed forces also engaged in sporadic battles with Israeli soldiers along the border between the two countries, and the Egyptian leader did nothing to conceal his antipathy toward the Zionist nation. Egypt supported by Soviet arms and money, and furious with the United States for reneging on a promise to provide funds for construction of the Aswan Dam on the Nile River, Nasser ordered the Suez Canal seized and nationalized, arguing tolls from the ships passing through the canal would pay for the construction of Aswan Dam.
The British were angered by the move and, during secret military consultations, sought the support of the French (who believed that Nasser was supporting rebels in the French colony of Algeria) and of neighboring Israel for an armed assault to retake the canal. The Israelis struck first on October 29, 1956. Two days later, British and French military forces joined them. Originally, forces from the three countries were set to strike at once, but the British and French troops were delayed. Behind schedule but ultimately successful, the British and French troops landed at Port Said and Port Fuad and took control of the area around the Suez Canal. However, their hesitation had given the Soviet Union—also confronted with a growing crisis in Hungary—time to respond. The Soviets, eager to exploit Arab nationalism and gain a foothold in the Middle East, supplied arms from Czechoslovakia to the Egyptian government beginning in 1955, and eventually helped Egypt construct the Aswan Dam on the Nile River after the United States refused to support the project. Soviet leader Nikita Khrushchev railed against the invasion and threatened to rain down nuclear missiles on Western Europe if the triple Israeli-French-British force did not withdraw. In the end, Egypt emerged victorious, and the British, French and Israeli governments withdrew their troops in late 1956 and early 1957. The event was a pivotal event among Cold War superpowers.
CAUSES OF THE SUEZ WAR
The Suez Canal Crisis of 1956 was a complex event driven by a confluence of geopolitical, economic, and nationalist factors. Below, I critically highlight ten causes of the crisis, drawing on historical context and referencing reliable sources. Each cause is analyzed to reveal underlying motivations, contradictions, and broader implications, while questioning the establishment narrative where appropriate.
· Egyptian Nationalization of the Suez Canal July 1956
Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser’s decision to nationalize the Suez Canal Company on July 26, 1956, was the immediate trigger for the crisis. This move aimed to fund the Aswan High Dam after Western withdrawal of financial support and assert Egyptian sovereignty over a critical asset controlled by British and French interests. While Nasser’s action was legally permissible under international law (with compensation offered), it was perceived as a direct challenge to Western dominance, escalating tensions. The establishment narrative often frames this as an aggressive act, but it can also be seen as a legitimate response to colonial exploitation.
· Western Refusal to Finance the Aswan High Dam
The U.S. and Britain’s decision in 1955-1956 to withdraw funding for the Aswan Dam was a pivotal cause. This was ostensibly due to Egypt’s growing ties with communist Czechoslovakia and the Soviet Union, but it also reflected Western unease with Nasser’s non-aligned stance and Pan-Arab nationalism. The withdrawal humiliated Nasser, pushing him to nationalize the canal to secure alternative funding. This highlights Western miscalculation, as the decision backfired by strengthening Soviet influence in Egypt.
· British and French Colonial Ambitions
Britain and France, clinging to imperial influence post-World War II, viewed the Suez Canal as vital to their economic and strategic interests, particularly for oil transport from the Middle East. Britain saw the canal as the “jugular vein of the Empire,” while France resented Nasser’s support for Algerian rebels. Their determination to reassert control over the canal, even though military means, reflected a refusal to accept decolonization. The establishment narrative often downplays this neo-colonial arrogance, framing their actions as pragmatic.
· French Concerns Over Algerian Rebellion
France’s escalating war against the Algerian National Liberation Front (FLN) was a significant driver. Nasser’s financial and rhetorical support for the FLN, using Suez Canal revenues and Egyptian radio broadcasts, infuriated French leaders. Premier Guy Mollet compared Nasser to Hitler, framing him as an existential threat to French colonial rule. This motive is often underrepresented in Anglo-centric accounts, which focus on British interests.
· Cold War Dynamics
The Suez Crisis unfolded against the backdrop of the Cold War, with the U.S. and Soviet Union vying for influence in the Middle East. Egypt’s arms deal with Czechoslovakia (1955) and Soviet support for the Aswan Dam after Western withdrawal positioned Nasser as a potential Soviet ally. Britain and France feared Soviet encroachment, while the U.S. sought to avoid alienating Arab states. The crisis exposed Western disunity, as U.S. opposition to the invasion aligned it temporarily with the Soviets, complicating the narrative of a unified Western bloc.
· Egyptian Nationalism and Anti-Colonial Sentiment
The rise of Egyptian nationalism, fueled by decades of British occupation (1882-1954), was a root cause. Nasser’s leadership, following the 1952 coup against King Farouk, galvanized demands for full sovereignty, including control over the Suez Canal. The 1951 revocation of the Anglo-Egyptian Treaty and attacks on British forces in the Canal Zone reflected deep anti-colonial resentment. Western sources often frame this as irrational aggression, but it was a rational push for self-determination.
The Impact of the Suez War on the Middle East Politics
The Suez War of 1956, also known as the Suez Crisis or the Second Arab-Israeli War, was a pivotal event in Middle Eastern politics, triggered by Egypt’s nationalization of the Suez Canal and the subsequent invasion by Israel, Britain, and France. Its repercussions reshaped regional dynamics, global alliances, and the balance of power.
· Rise of Nasserism and Pan-Arabism
The Suez War elevated Egyptian President Gamal Abdel Nasser as a symbol of Arab nationalism. Despite Egypt’s military defeat, Nasser’s defiance of Western powers and retention of the Suez Canal portrayed him as a hero of anti-imperialism. This fueled the spread of Nasserism, a blend of Arab unity and anti-colonial sentiment, across the region, particularly in Syria, Jordan, and Iraq. However, the narrative of Nasser as a flawless leader is questionable—his unilateral decision-making, as noted by historian Abd al-Azim Ramadan, often lacked rationality, risking regional stability.
· Decline of British and French Influence
The war marked a significant decline in British and French imperial power in the Middle East. Their failed invasion, halted by U.S. and Soviet pressure, exposed their diminished global clout and accelerated decolonization. Britain’s humiliation, in particular, ended its role as a dominant regional power, as evidenced by Prime Minister Anthony Eden’s resignation in January 1957. This shift is often overstated as a complete withdrawal of European influence, as both nations retained economic ties, but their political leverage waned.
· Increased U.S. and Soviet Involvement
The Suez Crisis opened the door for greater superpower involvement in the Middle East. The U.S., through the Eisenhower Doctrine (1957), pledged economic and military aid to counter Soviet influence, marking a new era of American engagement. The Soviet Union, aligning with Nasser, supplied arms and supported Egypt’s Aswan Dam project, gaining a foothold in the region. This bipolar dynamic intensified Cold War rivalries, often at the expense of regional autonomy.
· Economic Reconfiguration in Egypt
Egypt’s nationalization of the Suez Canal increased its revenue significantly, from 2.3 million to 24.5 million Egyptian pounds annually after the canal reopened in 1957. This, coupled with Soviet aid and a $100 million loan from Saudi Arabia, enabled Egypt to fund the Aswan Dam and assert economic independence. Yet, Egypt’s reliance on foreign aid suggests that its victory was not entirely self-sustained.
· Impact on Intra-Arab Politics
The war intensified tensions between Egypt and other Arab states. Nasser’s leadership inspired radical movements in Syria and Lebanon, destabilizing pro-Western governments. However, his ambition to dominate Arab politics created friction with rivals like Iraq and Saudi Arabia, undermining the Pan-Arab ideal. The establishment narrative of Arab unity post-Suez ignores these underlying rivalries.
Conclusion
The Suez War was a transformative event that reshaped Middle Eastern politics by diminishing European influence, boosting Arab nationalism, and drawing the Superpowers into the region. It highlighted the growing assertiveness of Middle Eastern states and set the stage for future conflicts, with lasting implications for regional stability and international relations. By critically examining these impacts, we see a region transformed not just by victory or defeat, but by the enduring tensions and dependencies that continue to shape its politics.
References
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